Fig. 9

Isovaleric acid regulates the polarization of macrophages via the mTOR signaling pathway. A and B Gene expression levels of PPAR-γ, STAT3, AP-1, and NF-κB in HD-11 treated with different dose of IVA for 5 h (n = 3). C Gene expression level of IL-10 in HD-11 treated with 1 mmol/L IVA or 1 mmol/L IVA + 10 μmol/L GW9662 for 5 h (n = 3). D Gene expression level of TGF-β in HD-11 after treated with 1 mmol/L IVA or 1 mmol/L IVA + 50 μmol/L S3I-201 for 5 h (n = 3). E Gene expression level of Arg-2 in HD-11 treated with 1 mmol/L IVA or 1 mmol/L IVA + 10 μmol/L GW9662 for 5 h (n = 3). F Gene expression level of Arg-2 in HD-11 after treated with 1 mmol/L IVA or 1 mmol/L IVA + 50 μmol/L S3I-201 for 5 h (n = 3). G Western blot analyses for p-p70 S6K1 T389 and total p70 S6K1 in HD-11 cells treated with 1 mmol/L IVA or 1 mmol/L IVA + 250 nmol/L rapamycin for 5 h. H Gene expression levels of STAT3 and PPAR-γ in HD-11 treated with 1 mmol/L IVA or 1 mmol/L IVA + 250 nmol/L rapamycin for 5 h (n = 3). I Confocal images showed NF-κB (red) and nucleus (blue) in HD-11 treated with 1 mmol/L IVA or 1 mmol/L IVA + 250 nmol/L rapamycin for 5 h (n = 3), scale bars, 10 μm. J Gene expression levels of IL-10, TGF-β, and Arg-2 in HD-11 treated with 1 mmol/L IVA or 1 mmol/L IVA + 250 nmol/L rapamycin for 5 h (n = 3). Data are means ± SEM; unpaired Student’s t test; β-actin and GAPDH were used as the endogenous control for qPCR. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001