Table 3 Effects of citrus pectin in the intestinal cell and animal models
Model of study | Stress by | CPn(s) assessed | Immune response and morphological changes | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
In vitro | ||||
Human T84 cells | Phorbol esters | CPn (DM30%, DM56%, DM74%) | ↑TEER | [114] |
Human Caco-2 cells | Salmonella typhimurium (pathogen), Listeria monocytogenes (pathogen), Lacticaseibacillus casei (probiotic), Bifidobacterium lactis (probiotic) | CPn or citrus residues after juice/pectin extraction | ↓(IL-8, pathogen adhesion and invasion); ↑probiotic adhesion | [33] |
Mouse CMT93 cells | Citrobacter rodentium | CPn (DM32%, DM59%, DM64%) | ↓(Pathogen adhesion, lucifer yellow flux); ↑TEER | [113] |
Porcine IPEC-J2 cells | Non-stimulated | Fermented citrus pulp | ↓(TLR4, CLDN-1); ↑NOD1 | [124] |
In vivo | ||||
Rats | Non-stimulated | CPn | ↑(Ki67+ cells, intestinal length and weight, cecum SCFAs, mucosal wet weight, protein and DNA content) | [125] |
Rats | Methotrexate-colitis | CPn | ↓(Organ water content, MPO, intestinal permeability, bacterial translocation); ↑(mucosal protein, DNA and RNA content) | [126] |
Mice | Acetic acid-colitis | CPn | ↓(ROS, MPO, granulocyte adhesion, colon damage) | [127] |
Mice | Doxorubicin-ileitis | CPn (DM7%) | ↓(TNF-α, MCP-1, CXCL1, IL-6, inflammatory cell infiltration, crypt cell apoptosis); =(IL-10, cecum SCFAs) | [32] |
Mice | DSS-colitis | CPn or citrus residues after juice extraction | ↓(TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-16, iNOS, ICAM-1, colon weight/length ratio); ↑(MUC3, ZO-1, OCLN) | [128] |
Mice | DSS-colitis | CPn (DE68.01 ± 0.43%, DE41.61 ± 0.12%, DE38.09 ± 0.78%) | ↓(IL-6, IL-17, MPO, FD4/LPS flux, epithelial erosion, ulceration, inflammatory cell infiltration, colon weight/length ratio); ↑(ZO-1, goblet cell abundance, crypt and villus structure); =OCLN | [31] |
Mice | DSS-colitis | CPn, CPn methanol extracts or methanol residues | ↓(TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, CXCL2, IL-17a, ulceration, erosion, inflammatory cell infiltration, colon shortening); ↑(ZO-2, OCLN, CLDN-3/-7, JAM-A) | [129] |
Mice | DSS-colitis | Methanol extracted CPn | ↓(IL-6, MCP-1, CXCL2, epithelial damage, inflammatory cell infiltration, colon shortening); ↑(ZO-1/-2, CLDN-3/-7, crypt structure, goblet cell abundance); =IL-17a | [130] |
Mice | DSS-colitis | CPn | ↓(TNF-α, IL-12, colon shortening) | [131] |
Cats | Indomethacin-small intestinal lesions | CPn | ↓Mucosal ulceration and lesions | [132] |
Chicken | Eimeria maxima coccidiosis | CPn | ↓(IL-12β, serosa thickness, schizont count in enterocytes); ↑(IFN-γ, IL-1β, goblet cell abundance, V/C ratio, cecum weight, cecum SCFAs); =(MUC2, IL-8) | [133] |
Weaned piglets | Non-stimulated | Citrus pulp | =(IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-10, SOCS3) | [134] |