Model of study | Stress by | ω-3 PUFA(s) assessed | Immune response and morphological changes | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
In vitro | ||||
Human Caco-2 cells | Non-stimulated | EPA | (↓HRP flux, =TEER) at 100 μmol/L PUFA for 24 h; ↑LDH release > 100 μmol/L PUFA for 48 h | [56] |
Human Caco-2 cells | Non-stimulated | ALA or EPA | (↑FS flux, ↓TEER) until 200 μmol/L PUFA; ↑LDH release for 200 μmol/L PUFA | [57] |
Human T84 cells | IL-4 | ALA, EPA or DHA | (↑TEER, ↓FD4 flux) for 100 μmol/L PUFA | [58] |
Human Caco-2 cells | Heat injury | EPA or DHA | ↑(TEER, ZO-1, OCLN, CLDN-2); ↓HRP flux | [59] |
Rat IEC-6 cells | Mechanical wound | ALA, EPA, DHA or Docosapentaenoic acid | ↑(TGF-β1, cell proliferation and migration in wound healing); ↓PGE2 | |
Human Caco-2 cells | IL-1β | ALA, EPA or DHA | ↓(IL-6, IL-8, iNOS); ↑PPARγ; =IκB | [62] |
Human Caco-2 cells | IL-1β | ALA or fish oil | ↓(COX-2, IL-8, iNOS) | [63] |
Human Caco-2 cells, human NCM460 cells, fetal H4 cells or neonate NEC-IEC cells | IL-1β | EPA or DHA | ↓(NF-κβ1, IL-8, IL-6, IL-1R1) | [64] |
Porcine IPEC-1 cells | DON | EPA or DHA | ↑(Cell proliferation, viability, LDH release) until 25 μg/mL PUFA; ↑(TEER, CLDN-1, ZO-1) at 12.5 μg/mL PUFA; ↓(FD4 flux, caspase-3/-8, necrotic cells, ROS TNFR1, RIPK-1/-3, MLKL, PGAM5, DRP1, HMGB1) at 12.5 μg/mL PUFA | [65] |
Porcine IPEC-J2 cells | LPS, DSS or H2O2 | EPA or DHA | ↑(Cell proliferation, viability); ↓(LDH release, caspase-3/-7); =NO2− | [66] |
Pig ileum explants | LPS | Fish oil | ↓LPS permeability; =TEER | [67] |
In vivo | ||||
Rat | Acetic acid-colitis | ω-3 PUFA-rich lipid emulsion | ↓(PGE2, LTB4, TXB2, macrophage infiltration, mucosal and tissue damage); =LTC4 | [68] |
Rat | TNBS-colitis | ALA | ↓(ICAM-1, VCAM-1, VEGFR-2); =HO-1 | [69] |
Rat | TNBS-colitis | Fish oil | ↓(COX-2, PGE2, LTB4, NF-κB); =(TNF-α, IL-1β, PPARγ, mucosal damage, inflammatory cell infiltration) | [70] |
Rat | DSS-colitis | Fish oil | ↓(Disease activity, colon weight/length ratio, mucosal ulceration, crypt dilation, goblet cell depletion, inflammatory cell infiltration, tissue damage, MPO, iNOS, AP, COX-2, LTB4, TNF-α); ↑glutathione; =IL-1β | [71] |
Rat | DSS-colitis | MaR1 | ↓(Disease activity, colon shortening, mucosal damage, inflammatory cell infiltration, PGE2, MPO, ROS, TLR4, p-NF-κB-p65, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β); ↑(ZO-1, OCLN, NRF2, HO-1) | [72] |
Neonate rats | Hypoxia and formula feed-induced NEC | DHA | ↓(TLR2/4, PAFR, tissue necrosis, incidence of disease); =phospholipase A2-II in small and/or large intestine | [73] |
Maternal rats | Formula feed-induced NEC | EPA or DHA | ↑(PGE2 receptor EP3, PGD2 receptor DP2, PPARγ) and ↓(IκBα/β, mucosal damage, inflammatory cell infiltration, incidence of disease) in premature rat pups | [74] |
Mice | Acute or chronic DSS-colitis | MaR1 | ↓(Disease activity, MPO, NF-κB, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, INFγ, ICAM-1, crypt damage, inflammatory cell infiltration, colon wall thickness, colon shortening, hyperaemia and tissue damage) | [75] |
Peritonitis mice | TNBS-colitis | RvE1 | ↑Tissue repair; ↓(leukocyte infiltration, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-12p40, iNOS, MPO); =(INF-γ, IL-4, IL-10, TGF-β) | [76] |
Mice | Citrobacter rodentium | Fish oil | ↑IL-10; ↓(mucosal damage, inflammatory cell infiltration, apoptotic cells, Ki67+ enterocytes, MIP-2, keratinocyte cytokine, MCP-1, IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-17A, FD4 intestinal permeability); =(mucosal adherent pathogen count, TNF-α, TGF-β, FoxP3) | [77] |
Mice | LPS | Fish oil | ↓(COX-2, TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α); =(iNOS, MCP-1, IL6, TNF-α) in small intestine | [78] |
Mice | LPS | EPA or DHA | ↑(E-cadherin, ZO-1, OCLN, GPR120, FFAR-2, MUC2, IL-10, tissue repair); ↓(NF-κB-p65, TAK1, INFγ, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6); =(TLR4, jejunum villus hight, crypt depth, V/C ratio) | [79] |
Pigs | Non-stimulated | Fish oil | ↓(PGE, PGI2, TXB2, crypt depth); =(colonic mucosal morphology) | [80] |
Sows | Non-stimulated | Linseed oil | ↓(δ-5/-6 desaturase, HRP flux until d 28, villus height at d 0, crypt depth at d 7) in piglet ileum; =ileum enterocyte maturation in piglets | [81] |
Sows | Non-stimulated | Extruded linseed | ↑(FD4/LPS permeability between d 0–28 in piglet jejunum explant); =(FD4/LPS permeability at d 52, IL-8, TNF-α in LPS-challenged piglet jejunum explants) | [82] |
Weaned piglets | LPS | Fish oil | ↑(Villus height, V/C ratio, OCLN, CLDN-1); ↓(diamine oxidase, TNF-α, PGE2, caspase-3, HSP70, NF-κB-p65, TLR4, MyD88, IRAK1, TRAF6, NOD2, RIPK-2); =(NF-κB-p65, NOD1, crypt depth) in jejunum and/or ileum | [83] |
Weaned piglets | DSS-colitis | Fish oil | ↑(Mitotic figures in enterocytes, UPC3, disease remission); =(mucosal damage, PPARγ, PGC1-α, TNF-α, KGF) | [84] |
Suckling piglets | Ischemia-injured ileum | EPA | ↓PGE2; ↑(TEER, H3-mannitol/C14-inulin flux, COX-2); =mucosal damage | [85] |