Fig. 5

Model summarizing the immunomodulatory mechanisms of milk-derived exosomes in the intestinal epithelium. Host cells when sensed pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) via pattern-recognizing receptors (PRRs), activate the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)-mediated pro-inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and cell-death pathway (Black lines). Dietary milk-derived exosomes (MDEs) deliver their miRNA/peptide cargo to the intestinal epithelial cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Subsequently, the MDE-miRNAs bind to the complementary mRNAs in the cells and inhibit the synthesis of proteins specific for NF-κB signaling (Red lines). Abbreviations: ROS, Reactive oxygen species; miRNA, microRNA; mRNA, messenger RNA. For references, see text. Figure created using BioRender.com